Cloud Robotics and Interoperability: Enhancing Data Security Regulations in an Automated Age

References

[1] Wuhui Chen, Yuichi Yaguchi, Keitaro Naruse, Yutaka Watanobe, and Keita Nakamura, A Study of Robotic Cooperation in Cloud Robotics: Architecture and Challenges, IEEE ACCESS. (2018) pp. 1-1. 10.1109/access.2018.2852295. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326193277_A_Study_of_Robotic_Cooperation_in_Cloud_Robotics_Architecture_and_Challenges/citations. (Accessed April 20, 2024).

[2] See Ragab, Ahmed & Khalil, Abeer & Elfaham, Mohamed & Hashad, Atalla, (2018), Cloud Robotics: A Survey, pp. 46-52. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334726380_Cloud_Robotics_A_Survey, which cited James J. Kuner. Cloud-Enabled Robots. In IEEE-RAS INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMANOID ROBOTS, Nashville, TN, 2010.

[3] See generally Masayuki Inaba et al., A Platform for Robotics Research Based on the Remote-Brained Robot Approach, 19 INT’L J. ROBOTICS RES. 933, 933–39 (2000) (proposing a framework for “the remote-brained robot approach”). 7. See, e.

[4] (2010-2014).

[5] Markus Waibel et al, A World Wide Web For Robots, 18 IEEE ROBOTICS & AUTOMATION MAGAZINE, No. 2 (2011), pp. 69-82.

[6] Ugo Pagallo, Robots In The Cloud With Privacy: A New Threat To Data Protection?, 29 COMPUTER LAW & SECURITY REVIEW, Issue 5, (2013), pp. 501-508.

[7] Id.

[8] Andrew Proia and Drew Simshaw, Consumer Cloud Robotics and the Fair Information Practice Principles: Recognizing the Challenges and Opportunities Ahead, 16 MINNESOTA JOURNAL OF LAW, SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, (2015), Issue 1, pp. 149.

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[14] Pagallo, supra note 6.

[15] Ben Kehoe, Sachin Patil, Pieter Abbeel, Ken Goldberg, A Survey of Research on Cloud Robotics and Automation, 12 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AUTOMATION SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING, (2015), pp. 398–409. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7006734 (Accessed May 7, 2024).

[16] Chen, supra note 1.

[17] Olimpiya Saha, and Prithviraj Dasgupt, A Comprehensive Survey of Recent Trends in Cloud Robotics Architectures and Applications, (2015), 7 ROBOTICS, (3):47. https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1360861712188306560, (Accessed April 20, 2024).

[18] Jerico Moeyersons, Martijn Gevaert, Karl-Erik Réculé, Bruno Volckaert, and Filip De Turck, UAVs-as-a-Service: Cloud-based Remote Application Management for Drones, (IFIP/IEEE International Symposium on Integrated Network Management (IM), Bordeaux, France, 2021), pp. 926-931.

[19] Emirates Introduces Revolutionary Robotic Check-in System at Dubai International Airport, Emirates Times, (March 10, 2023), https://theemiratestimes.com/emirates-introduces-robotic-check-in-system/ .

[20] As an example, see the Robopal toy: Dylan F. Glas, Takahiro Miyashita, Hiroshi Ishiguro, Norihiro Hagita, Robopal: Modeling Role Transitions in Human-Robot Interaction, (Proceedings 2007 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Rome, Italy, 2007), pp. 2130-2137, doi: 10.1109/ROBOT.2007.363636.

[21] Saha, supra note 18.

[22] GEORGE A. BEKEY, AUTONOMOUS ROBOTS: FROM BIOLOGICAL INSPIRATION TO IMPLEMENTATION AND CONTROL, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. & London (2005)

[23] PETER SINGER, WIRED FOR WAR: THE ROBOTICS REVOLUTION AND CONFLICT IN THE 21ST CENTURY, Penguin, London (2009).

[24] Pagallo, supra note 6.

[25] Saha, supra note 18.

[26] See the definition of Neil Richards, and William Smart, How Should the Law Think About Robots?, (2013) https://ssrn.com/abstract=2263363 (Accessed April 22, 2024).

[27] JIEFEI WANG AND DAMITH HERATH, FOUNDATIONS OF ROBOTICS: A MULTIDISCIPLINARY APPROACH WITH PYTHON AND ROS, Springer, and Kinova (2022), Chapter 7, pp. 180, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1983-1 (Accessed April 22, 2024).

[28] Aldabarn Robotics. NAO Software Documentation. 2019, http://doc.aldebaran.com/index.html (Accessed April 19, 2024).

[29] Elfituri Lahemer, and Ahmad Rad, An Adaptive Augmented Vision-Based Ellipsoidal SLAM for Indoor Environments, SENSORS, (2019), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333939201_An_Adaptive_Augmented_Vision-Based_Ellipsoidal_SLAM_for_Indoor_Environments (Accessed May 7, 2024).

[30] Alfredo Polito, Camilo Buscaron, and Grace Reed, Roomie Uses AWS Robomaker to Scale Custom Robotics Development, Amazon Robotics Blog (April 1, 2021), https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/robotics/roomie-uses-aws-robomaker-to-scale-custom-robotics-development/ (Accessed April 21, 2024).

[31] As well as Amazon Lex, Amazon Kinesis, Amazon S3, and Amazon Recognition via the AWS RoboMaker cloud Extensions for ROS.

[32] Polito, supra note 30.

[33] Angelica Lima, Robots Aren’t as Smart as You Think, https://www.technologyreview.com/2017/11/02/147995/robots-arent-as-smart-as-you-think/, MIT Technology Review (2017) (Accessed May 6, 2024).

[34] Jonathan Petit, and Steven E. Shladover, Potential Cyberattacks on Automated Vehicles, 16 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS (2015).

[35] Jean-Paul Yaacoub, Hassan Noura, Ola Salman, and Ali Chehab, Robotics Cyber Security: Vulnerabilities, Attacks, Countermeasures, and Recommendations, 21 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR INFORMATION SECURITY (2021).

[36] Gledre Sabaliauskaite, Geok Ng, Justin Ruths, Aditya Mathur, A Comprehensive Approach, and a Case Study for Conducting Attack Detection Experiments in Cyber–Physical Systems, 98 ROBOTICS AND AUTONOMOUS SYSTEMS (2017).

[37] Future Market Insights, Cyber Security in Robotics Market Outlook (Forecast 2023 to 2033). (February 2022).

[38] Gerasimos Samatas, and Theodore Pachidis, Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) in Mobile Robots over the Last Five Years: A Review, 6 Designs, (2022) pp. 17. https://www.mdpi.com/2411-9660/6/1/17 (Accessed May 6, 2024).

[39] Ferran Paredes, Cristian Herrojo, and Ferran Martín, Position Sensors for Industrial Applications Based on Electromagnetic Encoders, Sensors, 8 BASEL, (2021), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8069193/ (Accessed May 7, 2024).

[40] Madhushanka Padmal, Dileepa Marasinghe, Vijitha Isuru, Nalin Jayaweera, Samad Ali, and Nandana Rajatheva, Elevated LiDAR Based Sensing for 6G - 3D Maps with cm Level Accuracy, 2022 IEEE 95th Vehicular Technology Conference: (VTC2022-Spring), Helsinki, Finland, 2022, pp. 1-5, https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9860788 (Accessed May 7, 2024).

[41] Actuators generally work with the sensors to carry out the required function. When a sensor obtains information from the environment, an algorithm can then be employed to interpret and decide on action based on such information, and a set of instructions is then sent by the algorithm to the robot’s actuators based on the sensory information to carry out the relevant purpose. See Jiefei Wang and Daminth Herath, What Makes Robots? Sensors, Actuators, and Algorithms, Foundations of Robotics (2022). Springer, Singapore, https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-19-1983-1_7 (Accessed May 6, 2024).

[42] Dimitris Gritzalis, Grammati Pantziou, and Rodrigo Román-Castro, Sensors Cybersecurity, SENSORS BASEL (2021), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350679707_Sensors_Cybersecurity (Accessed May 6, 2024).

[43] Pagallo, supra note 6.

[44] Anatolij Bezemskij, George Loukas, Richard Anthony, and Diane Gan, Behaviour-Based Anomaly Detection of Cyber-Physical Attacks on a Robotic Vehicle. IN PROCEEDINGS OF THE 15TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING AND COMMUNICATIONS AND 2016 INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON CYBERSPACE AND SECURITY (IUCC-CSS), Granada, Spain, 14–16 December 2016; pp. 61–68.

[45] See also Chundong Wang, Yee Ching Tok, Rohini Poolat, Sudipta Chattopadhyay, and Mohan Elara, How to Secure Autonomous Mobile Robots? An Approach with Fuzzing, Detection and Mitigation, 112 JOURNAL OF SYSTEMS ARCHITECTURE (2021), 101838., https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1383762120301302 (Accessed May 6, 2024).

[46] 35 Millard, C., Hon, W. K., and Singh, J. “Internet of Things Ecosystems: Unpacking Legal Relationships and Liabilities.” In 2017 IEEE International Conference on Cloud Engineering (IC2E), (2017): 286-291.

[47] Hon, W.K., and Millard, C, Cloud Technologies and Services, In Millard, C. (ed) CLOUD COMPUTING LAW, Oxford University Press, 2013, pp. 3-17.

[48] Timothy Morrow, 12 Risks, Threats, & Vulnerabilities in Moving to the Cloud, Software Engineering Institute Blog, (March 5, 2018) https://insights.sei.cmu.edu/blog/12-risks-threats-vulnerabilities-in-moving-to-the-cloud/ (Accessed May 6, 2024).

[49] Pagallo, supra note 6.

[50] Yaacoub, supra note 35. See also Olga Weis, Cloud Based Biometric Attendance System with Redirection Technology, FlexiHub Blog (February 8, 2023) https://www.flexihub.com/biometric-device-to-the-cloud/ (Accessed May 7, 2024).

[51] Armin Mokhtarian, Alexandru Kampmann, Maximilian Lueer, Stefan Kowalewski, and Bassam Alrifaee, A Cloud Architecture for Networked and Autonomous Vehicles, CONFERENCE: 16TH IFAC SYMPOSIUM ON CONTROL IN TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS CTS 2021, (June 2021), at Lille, France, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355096282_A_Cloud_Architecture_for_Networked_and_Autonomous_Vehicles (Accessed May 6, 2024).

[52] Kassem Fawaz, Kyu-Han Kim, Kang Shin, Protecting Privacy of BLE Device Users, IN PROCEEDINGS OF THE 25TH USENIX SECURITY SYMPOSIUM (USENIX SECURITY 16), Austin, TX, USA, 10–12 August 2016.  https://www.usenix.org/conference/usenixsecurity16/technical-sessions/presentation/fawaz (Accessed May 8, 2024).

[53] Luis Hernández-Álvarez, Juan José Bullón Pérez, Farrah Kristel Batista, and Araceli Queiruga-Dios, Security Threats and Cryptographic Protocols for Medical Wearables, MATHEMATICS (2022), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359170145_Security_Threats_and_Cryptographic_Protocols_for_Medical_Wearables (Accessed May 8, 2024).

[54] Id.

[55] Alessandra Sorrentino, Filippo Cavallo, and Laura Fiorini, A Plug and Play Transparent Communication Layer for Cloud Robotics Architectures, ROBOTICS (2020) https://flore.unifi.it/retrieve/handle/2158/1195202/483749/IP0xx%20-%20MDPI%20robotics%20Cloud%20robotics.pdf (Accessed May 8, 2024).

[56] Weisong Shi, Jie Cao, Quan Zhang, Youhuizi Li, and Lanyu Xu, Edge Computing: Vision and Challenges, IEEE INTERNET OF THINGS JOURNAL, (2016) 3(5):637-646, (Accessed May 8, 2024).

[57] Id.

[58] Id.

[59] P. Jorge Escamilla-Ambrosio, Abraham Rodríguez-Mota, Eleazar Aguirre-Anaya, Raul Acosta-Bermejo, and Moises Salinas. Distributing Computing in the Internet of Things: Cloud, Fog and Edge Computing

[60] Over-view, STUDIES IN COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE JOURNAL (2018) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319715424_Distributing_Computing_in_the_Internet_of_Things_Cloud_Fog_and_Edge_Computing_Overview (Accessed May 8, 2024).

[61] Shi, supra note 56.

[62] Id.

[63] Id.

[64] Francis DaCosta, Rethinking the Internet of Things: A Scalable Approach to Connecting Everything. New York, NY, USA: (2013), APRESSOPEN.

[65] Some of these laws are regarded as data privacy laws. Although, the concepts of data privacy, data protection, and data security overlap, data privacy generally focuses on the rights of consumers to privacy of their information.

[66] Codified under New York's General Business Law as Article 39-F sections 899-AA and 899-BB.

[67] Act of 2018 as amended by the California Privacy Rights Act of 2020 (CPRA),

[68] Security Breach Notification Laws, (January 17, 2022), https://www.ncsl.org/technology-and-communication/security-breach-notification-laws#:~:text=All%2050%20states%2C%20the%20District,information%20involving%20personally%20identifiable%20information. (Accessed April 21, 2024).

[69] 43 USC 17932).The HITECH Act was enacted as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, and signed into law on February 17, 2009, to promote the adoption and meaningful use of health information technology - https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/special-topics/hitech-act-enforcement-interim-final-rule/index.html (Accessed April 21, 2024).

[70] Also, the HITECH Act extended the duties of business associates under the HIPAA Security Rule, with subsequent regulations from HHS to enact and clarify these adjustments. See HHS’ publication on, Summary of the HIPAA Security Rule, https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/security/laws-regulations/index.html. (Accessed April 21, 2024).

[71] Section 13400(1) and 13402(a) and (b) of the HITECH Act. The Act incorporates the definitions of ‘‘covered entity,’’ ‘‘business associate,’’ and ‘‘protected health information’’ used in the HIPAA Administrative Simplification regulations (45 CFR parts 160, 162, and 164) (HIPAA Rules) at § 160.103.

[72] 2005, which was amended by the SHIELD Act, https://ag.ny.gov/resources/organizations/data-breach-reporting/shield-act (Accessed April 22, 2024).

[73] These exceptions include “disclosures where the recipient of the information would not reasonably have been able to retain the information, certain unintentional acquisition, access, or use of information by employees or persons acting under the authority of a covered entity or business associate, as well as certain inadvertent disclosures among persons similarly authorized to access protected health information at a business associate or covered entity”. See, Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Secretary, Breach Notification for Unsecured Protected Health Information, Federal Register/Vol. 74, No. 162/Monday, August 24, 2009/Rules and Regulations, 45 CFR Parts 160 and 164 RIN 0991–AB56, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2009-08-24/pdf/E9-20169.pdf (Accessed April 21, 2024).

[74] Section 1798.82 of the California Civil Code.

[75] 2005, which was amended by the SHIELD Act, https://ag.ny.gov/resources/organizations/data-breach-reporting/shield-act (Accessed April 22, 2024).

[76] Part 1, Title XV, Chapter 93H of Massachusetts General Laws, https://malegislature.gov/Laws/GeneralLaws/PartI/TitleXV/Chapter93H (Accessed April 22, 2024).

[77] Section 899-bb of the New York General Business Law.

[78] Section 899-BB (2)(a)(5) of the New York General Business Law.

[79] Addressable guidelines in this context refer to regulations that are required to be followed, while leaving some discretion to entities. Where there is a more efficient or better procedure or process different from the stipulated guideline, entities would generally be able to implement the better option within the confines and spirit of the relevant regulation.

[80] See South Korea’s Personal Information Protection Act (PIPA), A translation of PIPA is available at https://elaw.klri.re.kr/eng_service/lawView.do?hseq=53044&lang=ENG ,accessed on April 22, 2024; and South Korea’s Guidance on the Safe Use of Personal Information in the Age of Artificial Intelligence, https://securiti.ai/south-korea-safe-use-of-personal-information-in-ai/ (Accessed April 20, 2024).

[81] European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). The GDPR is enforced by independent national data protection agencies, as well as national courts. See Data protection: Commission adopts new rules to ensure stronger enforcement of the GDPR in cross-border cases, European Commission Press Release, July 4, 2023, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_3609 . (Accessed April 20, 2024). See also Civil Law Rules on Robotics European Parliament resolution of 16 February 2017 with recommendations to the Commission on Civil Law Rules on Robotics (2015/2103(INL)) https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52017IP0051&rid=9#:~:text=C%20252%2F241-,Thursday%2016%20February%202017,conflict%20with%20the%20First%20Law. (Accessed April 20, 2024).

[82] China’s Cybersecurity Law whose translation is available here https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-cybersecurity-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china-effective-june-1-2017/ (Accessed April 20, 2024). China’s Personal Information Protection Law available here https://www.china-briefing.com/news/the-prc-personal-information-protection-law-final-a-full-translation/ (Accessed April 22, 2024). China’s Data Security Law whose Translation is available here https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/datasecuritylaw/ (Accessed April 22, 2024). China’s Regulations on Management of Network Product Security Vulnerability Management, whose translation is available https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/product-security-vulnerabilites/ (Accessed April 20, 2024).

[83] This bill establishes requirements for how companies, including nonprofits and common carriers, handle personal data, which includes information that identifies or is reasonably linkable to an individual. The bill was sponsored by Rep. Pallone, Frank, Jr. [D-NJ-6] , and introduced on June 21, 2022. The latest action on the bill on the Congress website is stipulated as “Placed on the Union Calendar, Calendar No. 488, Action By: House of Representatives” on December 30, 2022. See https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/8152 (Accessed April 22, 2024)

[84] Alan Butler and Hayley Tsukayama,, Data Protection Leaders Differ on Powers of New US Privacy Law, Bloomberg Law (October 6, 2023) https://news.bloomberglaw.com/privacy-and-data-security/data-protection-leaders-differ-on-powers-of-new-us-privacy-law (Accessed April 22, 2024).

[85] Ryan Calo, Robotics and the New Cyberlaw, 103 CALIFORNIA LAW REVIEW, (2015). No. 3, pp. 513-63.

[86] Rika Melissa, Global Cloud Robotics Market to Reach USD 74.7 Billion by 2032, Statzon (January 12, 2024), https://statzon.com/insights/global-cloud-robotics-market#:~:text=Cloud%20Robotics%20Market%20Size&text=The%20global%20cloud%20robotics%20market,34.7%25%20from%202023%20to%202032 (Accessed April 21, 2024).

[87] Cesar Cerrudo, Lucas Apa, Hacking Robots Before Skynet, CYBERSECURITY INSIGHT, IOACTIVE REPORT, Seattle, USA (2017) https://ioactive.com/pdfs/Hacking-Robots-Before-Skynet.pdf (Accessed May 7, 2024).

[88] Alessio Botta, Sayna Rotbei, Stefania Zinno, and Giorgio Ventre, Cyber Security of Robots: A Comprehensive Survey, 18 SCIENCE DIRECT (2023), 200237.

[89] Id.

[90] Id.

[91] Wojciech Szynkiewicz, Niewiadomska-Szynkiewicz Ewa, and Kamila Lis, Deep Learning of Sensor Data in Cybersecurity of Robotic Systems: Overview and Case Study Results, 12 Electronics (2023), no. 19: 4146. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12194146 (Accessed May 8, 2024).

@article{1707700,
      author = {Kehinde Ojadamola Takuro},
      title = {Cloud Robotics and Interoperability: Enhancing Data Security Regulations in an Automated Age},
      journal = {Iconic Research And Engineering Journals},
      year = {2025},
      volume = {8},
      number = {9},
      pages = {1443-1456},
      issn = {2456-8880},
      url = {https://www.irejournals.com/formatedpaper/1707700.pdf},
      abstract = {The interoperability of cloud robotics systems, as a backdrop for this paper, highlights the gaps in the current data security regulatory framework of the United States (US). While there is a wealth of scholarly works on privacy rights as it relates to cloud-based services and some research materials that address legal issues in the adoption of robots, detailed research assessing the effectiveness of the data security framework in the US regarding the convergence of robotic systems and cloud services, seems to be lacking. Such research is crucial in shaping policies that impact cloud robotics development. Through an examination of cloud robotics systems juxtaposed with the US data security regulatory framework, this paper advocates for an enhanced data security regulatory framework that takes into consideration the nuances of cyber-physical systems like cloud robots. This paper aims to contribute to policy developments that can spur regulatory reforms and ultimately enhance data protection for users of cloud robotics systems in the US.},
      month = {March},
  }