Assessment of Water Quality and Oxidative Stress Response in Fish Sampled from Selected Rivers in Ogbomoso, South-West Nigeria

References

[1] Owode River

[2] Ikose River

[3] Commercial Private fish Farm

[4] Water

[5] 1

[6] 638.69

[7] 550.57

[8] 222.55

[9] Somewhat polluted

[10] Sinha et al., 2004

[11] 2

[12] 712.36

[13] 561.40

[14] 446.62

[15] “Severely polluted”

[16] Sinha et al., 2004

[17] 3

[18] 781.28

[19] 572.19

[20] 471.33

[21] “Severely polluted”

[22] Sinha et al., 2004

[23] Table 4. Identified constituents of extracted water sample from the commercial fish farm

[24] S/N

[25] Identified compound

[26] Retention

[27] Time

[28] Area (%)

[29] Molecular

[30] Formular

[31] Molecular

[32] Weight

[33] 1

[34] 1,2,3-Propanetriol, 1-acetate

[35] 4.890

[36] 3.72

[37] C5H10O4

[38] 134.13

[39] 2

[40] Glycerol 1,2-diacetate

[41] 6.652

[42] 3.15

[43] C7H12O5

[44] 176.17

[45] 3

[46] Pentadecanoic acid, 14-methyl-, methyl ester

[47] 13.456

[48] 1.07

[49] C17H34O2

[50] 270.50

[51] 4

[52] n-Hexadecanoic acid

[53] 13.827

[54] 4.74

[55] C16H32O2

[56] 256.42

[57] 5

[58] 1-Nonadecene

[59] 14.548

[60] 2.26

[61] C19H38

[62] 266.50

[63] 6

[64] Octadecanoic acid, 2,3-dihydroxypropyl ester

[65] 14.646

[66] 4.60

[67] C21H42O4

[68] 358.60

[69] 7

[70] 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)-

[71] 15.127

[72] 3.61

[73] C18H32O2

[74] 280.40

[75] 8

[76] Linoelaidic acid

[77] 15.218

[78] 2.64

[79] C18H32O2

[80] 280.40

[81] 9

[82] Octadecanoic acid

[83] 15.378

[84] 1.27

[85] C18H36O2

[86] 284.50

[87] 10

[88] Henicos-1-ene

[89] 16.528

[90] 1.10

[91] C21H42

[92] 294.60

[93] 11

[94] Decanedioic acid, diisooctyl ester

[95] 17.335

[96] 22.19

[97] C26H50O4

[98] 426.70

[99] 12

[100] Decanal

[101] 17.450

[102] 25.84

[103] C10H20O

[104] 156.26

[105] 13

[106] Decanedioic acid, bis(2-ethylhexyl ) ester

[107] 17.478

[108] 20.96

[109] C34H66O4

[110] 538.90

[111] 14

[112] 2-Propen-1-one, 1-(2,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-

[113] 18.491

[114] 2.85

[115] C15H12O4

[116] 256.25

[117] Table 5. Identified constituents of extracted water sample from Owode

[118] S/N

[119] Identified compound

[120] Retention

[121] Time

[122] Area (%)

[123] Molecular

[124] Formular

[125] Molecular

[126] Weight

[127] 1

[128] 9-Octadecene, (E)-

[129] 8.317

[130] 0.44

[131] C18H36

[132] 252.5

[133] 2

[134] 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol

[135] 9.622

[136] 1.33

[137] C14H22O

[138] 206.32

[139] 3

[140] Dodecanoic acid

[141] 10.194

[142] 0.33

[143] C12H24O2

[144] 200.32

[145] 4

[146] 2-Tetradecene, (E)-

[147] 10.457

[148] 9.15

[149] C14H28

[150] 196.37

[151] 5

[152] Hexadecane

[153] 10.509

[154] 1.00

[155] C16H34

[156] 226.44

[157] 6

[158] 1-Octadecene

[159] 12.077

[160] 0.50

[161] C18H36

[162] 252.50

[163] 7

[164] E-15-Heptadecenal

[165] 12.277

[166] 0.31

[167] C17H32O

[168] 252.40

[169] 8

[170] 1-Nonadecene

[171] 12.363

[172] 14.67

[173] C19H38

[174] 266.50

[175] 9

[176] Hexadecane

[177] 12.397

[178] 1.21

[179] C16H34

[180] 226.44

[181] 10

[182] Phthalic acid, isobutyl octadecyl ester

[183] 12.935

[184] 0.50

[185] C30H50O4

[186] 474.70

[187] 11

[188] 7,9-Di-tert-butyl-1-oxaspiro(4,5)deca-6,9-diene-2,8-dione

[189] 13.358

[190] 1.03

[191] C17H24O3

[192] 276.40

[193] 12

[194] Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester

[195] 13.461

[196] 0.64

[197] C17H34O2

[198] 270.50

[199] 13

[200] n-Hexadecanoic acid

[201] 13.845

[202] 2.33

[203] C16H32O2

[204] 256.42

[205] 14

[206] 1-Nonadecene

[207] 14.074

[208] 14.14

[209] C19H38

[210] 266.50

[211] 15

[212] Eicosane

[213] 14.102

[214] 0.82

[215] C20H42

[216] 282.50

[217] 16

[218] Methyl stearate

[219] 15.075

[220] 0.58

[221] C19H38O2

[222] 298.50

[223] 17

[224] Ethanol, 2-(tetradecyloxy)-

[225] 15.212

[226] 0.55

[227] C16H34O2

[228] 258.44

[229] 18

[230] Octadecanoic acid

[231] 15.401

[232] 0.93

[233] C18H36O2

[234] 284.50

[235] 19

[236] 5-Eicosene, (E)-

[237] 15.641

[238] 11.71

[239] C20H40

[240] 280.50

[241] 20

[242] 1-Docosene

[243] 15.641

[244] 0.32

[245] C22H44

[246] 308.60

[247] 21

[248] 9,10-Anthracenedione, 2-[4-(acetyl oxy)tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl]-1,3, 6,8-tetramethoxy-, cis-

[249] 16.843

[250] 0.86

[251] C25H26O9

[252] 470.50

[253] 22

[254] [1,1'-Biphenyl]-2,3'-diol, 3,4',5, 6'-tetrakis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-

[255] 17.106

[256] 12.37

[257] C28H42O2

[258] 410.60

[259] 23

[260] Decanedioic acid, bis(2-ethylhexyl ) ester

[261] 17.272

[262] 6.79

[263] C34H66O4

[264] 538.90

[265] 24

[266] n-Tetracosanol-1

[267] 17.633

[268] 8.19

[269] C24H50O

[270] 354.70

[271] 25

[272] Eicosane, 9-cyclohexyl-

[273] 18.640

[274] 0.33

[275] C26H52

[276] 364.70

[277] 26

[278] Cyclopentane, (4-octyldodecyl)-

[279] 18.949

[280] 0.57

[281] C25H50

[282] 350.70

[283] 27

[284] Hexadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hy droxymethyl)ethyl ester

[285] 19.321

[286] 2.30

[287] C19H38O4

[288] 330.50

[289] 28

[290] Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate

[291] 19.572

[292] 0.85

[293] C24H38O4

[294] 390.60

[295] 29

[296] Pentacosane

[297] 20.167

[298] 0.30

[299] C25H52

[300] 352.70

[301] 30

[302] 9-Nonadecene

[303] 20.837

[304] 4.93

[305] C19H38

[306] 266.50

[307] Table 6. Identified constituents of extracted water sample from Ikose River

[308] S/N

[309] Identified compound

[310] RT

[311] Area (%)

[312] MF

[313] MW

[314] 1

[315] 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol

[316] 9.622

[317] 0.98

[318] C14H22O

[319] 206.32

[320] 2

[321] 2-Tetradecene, (E)-

[322] 10.457

[323] 6.36

[324] C14H28

[325] 196.37

[326] 3

[327] Hexadecane

[328] 10.509

[329] 0.72

[330] C16H34 

[331] 226.44

[332] 4

[333] 1-Nonadecene

[334] 12.374

[335] 14.07

[336] C19H38

[337] 266.50 

[338] 5

[339] Carbonic acid, eicosyl vinyl ester

[340] 12.403

[341] 1.16

[342] C23H44O3

[343] 368.60

[344] 6

[345] Phthalic acid, hexadecyl propyl ester

[346] 12.941

[347] 0.76

[348] C27H44O4

[349] 432.60

[350] 7

[351] 7,9-Di-tert-butyl-1-oxaspiro(4,5)d eca-6,9-diene-2,8-dione

[352] 13.364

[353] 1.40

[354] C17H24O3 

[355] 276.40

[356] 8

[357] n-Hexadecanoic acid

[358] 13.868

[359] 2.76

[360] C16H32O2

[361] 256.42

[362] 9

[363] 5-Eicosene, (E)-

[364] 14.085

[365] 13.88

[366] C20H40

[367] 280.50

[368] 10

[369] Eicosane

[370] 14.108

[371] 0.79

[372] C20H42

[373] 282.50

[374] 11

[375] Dichloroacetic acid, heptadecyl ester

[376] 15.218

[377] 0.82

[378] C19H36Cl2O2

[379] 367.40

[380] 12

[381] Octadecanoic acid

[382] 15.413

[383] 1.01

[384] C18H36O2

[385] 284.50

[386] 13

[387] 5-Eicosene, (E)-

[388] 15.653

[389] 11.75

[390] C20H40 

[391] 280.50 

[392] 14

[393] Ethanol, 2-(octadecyloxy)-

[394] 16.546

[395] 0.73

[396] C20H42O2

[397] 314.50

[398] 15

[399] 9,10-Anthracenedione, 2-[4-(acetyl oxy)tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl]-1,3, 6,8-tetramethoxy-, cis-

[400] 16.849

[401] 0.74

[402] C25H26O9 

[403] 470.50

[404] 16

[405] [1,1'-Biphenyl]-2,3'-diol, 3,4',5, 6'-tetrakis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-

[406] 17.123

[407] 10.82

[408] C28H42O2

[409] 410.60

[410] 17

[411] Carbonic acid, dodecyl 2-ethylhexy l ester

[412] 17.318

[413] 6.43

[414] C21H42O3

[415] 342.60

[416] 18

[417] Carbonic acid, 2-ethylhexyl hexade cyl ester

[418] 17.410

[419] 4.90

[420] C25H50O3 

[421] 398.70

[422] 19

[423] n-Tetracosanol-1

[424] 17.656

[425] 8.87

[426] C24H50O

[427] 354.70

[428] 20

[429] Carbonic acid, but-2-yn-1-yl octadecyl ester

[430] 18.966

[431] 0.66

[432] C23H42O3

[433] 366.60

[434] 21

[435] Hexadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hy droxymethyl)ethyl ester

[436] 19.578

[437] 3.55

[438] C19H38O4

[439] 330.50

[440] 22

[441] 3-Eicosene, (E)-

[442] 20.883

[443] 0.61

[444] C20H40

[445] 280.50

[446] 23

[447] 1-Docosene

[448] 20.883

[449] 6.24

[450] C22H44 

[451] 308.60

[452] The specific activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in the liver tissues (Fig.4) and the gills (5) of fish sampled from Owode river showed the highest significant activity when compared with other samples.

[453] Overall high concentration of MDA was recorded in the liver of the fish from Ikose river (Fig. 6). However, liver MDA concentrations were not significantly different among the rivers. The concentrations were significantly different from one another in the gills (Fig. 7).

[454] The fish liver (Fig. 5) and the gills (Fig. 6) of river Owode recorded high acetylcholine esterase activity when compared with fish samples from Ikose and the commercial farm.

[455] Significantly high concentration of non-protein sulphydryl group (NP-SH) was recorded in the liver tissues and the gills of fish sampled from Ikose (Fig. 7) and Owode (Fig. 8) rivers when compared with the fish tissues from commercial farm. The difference in concentration between the two rivers was not significant.

[456] The activity of ATPase in the samples of the liver (Fig. 9) and the gills (Fig. 10) significantly increased in the fish sampled from the two rivers when compared with the commercial fish samples. But the activities of the enzyme in the fish tissues obtained from the two rivers (Owode and Ikose) were not significantly different.

[457] DISCUSSION

[458] Ogbomoso town is located in the South West of Nigeria in West Africa with an estimated population of 655,517 (U N, 2018). Owode and Ikose rivers provide domestic and agricultural uses as well as a source of protein nutrition (fish) for the people. The two rivers were open to indiscriminate dumping of domestic wastes, livestock grazing and agrochemical release from the agricultural catchment. Contamination of the river water by chemical wastes may upset the ecosystem leading to reduction of fertility, changes in sex ratio, developmental alteration and intersex in fish populations as well as cancer cell proliferation in humans (Do et al., 2023; Brander et al., 2013; Pawlowski et al., 2004; Panter et al., 1998). Water quality index (WQI) is a summation of the physicochemical characteristics of water. According to Sinha et al., (2004), the value of WQI (>100) of the water samples including those from the commercial fish farm implied that the water was unsafe for human consumption though the commercial water was less polluted. Chemical profiling of the sampled river water revealed the presence of harmful phenolic compounds such as 2,4 - di-tert-butylphenol and bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (Wang et al., 2025; Gao et al., 2023; Gan et al., 2015) and biphenyl derivative [1,1'-biphenyl]-2,3'-diol, tetrakis (tert-butyl) (Ngoubeyou et al., 2022) are all human carcinogens. The decanedioic acid esters detected in water samples from the commercial fish farm and Owode river are probably originated from industrial wastes such as PVC in lubricants as well as in cosmetics exposures. These esters have the potential to cause chronic toxicity through bioaccumulation (Reddy et al., 2025; Ito et al., 2024). Long-chain hydrocarbons such as 1-nonadecene and 5-eicosene, identified across all sites are petroleum-related alkenes capable of coating fish gills, thereby impairing respiration (Adams et al., 2013). WQI values obtained across all the sampling sites consistently exceeded the threshold of 100 (Sinha et al., 2004), indicating severe pollution. The condition factor (K) and hepatosomatic index (HSI) are integrated bioindicators of contaminant exposure to aquatic ecosystem (Pandit et al., 2019). High HSI value indicates big liver, high metabolic activity, high energy storage and the general health condition of a fish while K also indicates the overall health condition of a fish based on the assumption that heavier fish (at a given length) is healthier than the lighter ones (Ogamba et al., 2014). The higher value of K in commercial fish than those from the rivers implies that the commercial fish were less impacted by the environmental stressors than the fish from the rivers (Ogamba et al., 2014), and driven by controlled water quality and nutrition, contrasting with the rivers' poorer indices occasioned by pollution. Prakash (2022) has reported a positive correlation between K and HSI. In a poor environment, fish usually have liver with less energy reserved in it. Lower values of K and HSI than the results of the present study have been reported (Tubin et al., 2020). The SOD assay provides valuable insight into oxidative stress responses in the exposed fish (Ofoegbu et al., 2023; Aguilar-Juárez et al., 2020). This antioxidant enzyme catalyzes the dismutation of superoxide radicals into hydrogen peroxide and oxygen, serving as a primary defence against reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated from environmental stressors such as pollutants. The observed significant increase in SOD specific activity in the fish from the polluted rivers relative to the response from the commercial fish samples probably was an adaptive response to oxidative challenge from the pollutants; a compensatory mechanism to mitigate ROS-induced damage (Formicki et al., 2025; Zhang et al., 2022; Aguilar-Juárez et al., 2020). The MDA level elevation in the river samples suggested heightened oxidative stress in the liver and the gills possibly due to exposure to the pollutants in the rivers (Ofoegbu et al., 2023; Rajabiesterabadi et al., 2020). Elevated MDA levels reflect an imbalance where antioxidant defenses, including SOD, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase, are insufficient to neutralize ROS. MDA is a secondary product of polyunsaturated fatty acid peroxidation, initiated by ROS such as superoxide radicals, hydroxyl radicals, and hydrogen peroxide. This peroxidation disrupts membrane integrity by cleaving lipid hydroperoxides, leading to MDA accumulation that is quantified via the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is a key enzyme in the cholinergic system that hydrolyzes the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) into choline and acetate, thereby terminating synaptic transmission at neuromuscular junctions and neuronal synapses. Inhibition of AChE leads to ACh accumulation, causing overstimulation of muscarinic and nicotinic receptors, which can result in neurobehavioral disruptions such as erratic swimming, convulsions, or paralysis. This enzyme is particularly sensitive to neurotoxic pollutants like organophosphate and carbamate pesticides, organotin compounds, heavy metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, making it a widely used biomarker for assessing sublethal toxicity in aquatic organisms (De Carvalho Silva et al., 2025). Increased AChE activity has been reported in fish brain exposed for short period (seven days) to imazapic and imazethapyr herbicides (Moraes et al., 2011; Toni et al., 2010). AChE activity is affected by such factors like temperature, humidity, fish species, size and tissues (Gupta et al., 2022; Menéndez-Helman et al., 2015; Durieux et al., 2010). Fish size appears plausible for the increased AChE activity as fish from the polluted water was remarkably small suggesting that the increased activity was a compensatory response. NP-SH compounds are thiol (SH) compounds consisting of glutathione (GSH), cysteinyl-glycine, cysteine and homocysteine that serve as critical non-enzymatic antioxidants that neutralize reactive oxygen species. Elevated NP-SH levels may indicate an adaptive response to oxidative challenge from environmental pollutants (Chowdhury & Saikia, 2020) reflecting enhanced -SH production to mitigate oxidative damage. Reduction of NP-SH may be due to SH depletion occasioned by oxidative stress. Na+/K+-ATPase is a membrane-bound enzyme that maintains cellular ionic gradients by pumping sodium ions out and potassium ions into the cells, utilizing ATP hydrolysis. This process is essential for osmoregulation, nerve impulse transmission, and muscle contraction, and is sensitive to pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, and organic compounds that disrupt membrane integrity or energy metabolism. The increased ATPase activity recorded in the gills and the liver samples from the fish of the two rivers probably represented a compensatory mechanism in response to osmotic stress (Abdelkhalek et al., 2015).

[459] CONCLUSION

[460] The quality of water from the two rivers was severely polluted probably by chemicals from domestic wastes and therefore the water was not suitable for human consumption. Water samples from the commercial fish farms were not as polluted as the river water. Accordingly, the fish from these rivers are not recommended for consumption.

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@article{1711359,
      author = {Lamidi W. B. Olaniyan, Owolabi O. Qudrat, Yahaya Abdulrazak, Gbadamosi R. Taofik, Adeosun O. Anthonia},
      title = {Assessment of Water Quality and Oxidative Stress Response in Fish Sampled from Selected Rivers in Ogbomoso, South-West Nigeria},
      journal = {Iconic Research And Engineering Journals},
      year = {2025},
      volume = {9},
      number = {3},
      pages = {2050-2064},
      issn = {2456-8880},
      url = {https://www.irejournals.com/formatedpaper/1711359.pdf},
      abstract = {Surface and underground water face the challenge of pollution arising from indiscriminate dumping of wastes and agrochemical leachates. Two rivers, Ikose and Owode located at the countryside of Ogbomoso town South-West of Nigeria were selected for quality assessment in comparison with water sourced from a commercial fish farm. Physicochemical parameters including pH, temperature, turbidity, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand and electrical conductivity were determined from the water samples. Water quality indices (WQI) of the water samples were calculated from the summation of the physicochemical characteristics of the rivers using a published model. Water analyses were carried out using liquid-liquid extraction and GC-MS technique. The lengths and weights of the fish samples were determined and thereafter homogenized for biochemical analyses. Hepatosomatic Index (HSI) as well as Fulton?s Condition Factor (K) was calculated from the fish length, body weight and liver weight. Statistical analysis was carried out; and the means were considered significantly different when p<0.05. The physicochemical characteristics of the three water sources were found to be significantly different from one another. Results of water analysis identified harmful chemical pollutants from all the samples. WQI of all the water samples were higher than the permitted level for purity. The values of HSI and K of the fish samples from the rivers were lower than those from the commercial farm. Biochemical tests of oxidative stress and exposure markers were positive in all the fish sample homogenates though less in the commercial fish. It is concluded that the water and fish from the rivers were not suitable for human consumption.},
      keywords = {Water Quality; Pollution; Fish; Oxidative Stress},
      month = {September},
      doi = {https://doi.org/10.64388/IREV9I3-1711359-2873}
  }