Igbo Women’s Political Participation in Nigeria: Impact of Underrepresentation on Local and National Policy Outcomes

References

[1] Abdulrasheed, A. (2022). The Politics of Gender Discrimination in Nigerian Fourth Republic: A Gender Analysis. Acta Politica Polonica, 2(54). https://doi.org/10.18276/ap.2022.54-02

[2] Agbalajobi, D. T. (2010). Women's Participation and the Political Process in Nigeria: Problems and Prospects. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations, 4(2), 75-82.

[3] Akinboye, S. O. (Ed.). (2004). Paradox of Gender Equality in Nigerian Politics. Lagos: Concept Publications.

[4] Anifowose, R. (2004). Women's Political Participation in Nigeria: Problems and Prospects. In S. O. Akinboye (Ed.), Paradox of Gender Equality in Nigerian Politics (pp. 156-178). Lagos: Concept Publications.

[5] Centre for Democracy and Development. (2022). Analysis: Female Candidature and Nigeria's 2023 Elections. Abuja: CDD West Africa. https://www.cddwestafrica.org/uploads/reports/file/ANALYSIS--Female-candidature-and-Nigeria_s-2023-elections.pdf

[6] Chiazor, F. (2026). Participation without power? Rethinking women’s political representation in Nigeria. Institute of Development Studies. Retrieved from https://www.https://www.ids.ac.uk/opinions/participation-without-power-rethinking-womens-political-representation-in-nigeria/

[7] Chuku, G. (2009). Igbo Women and Political Participation in Nigeria, 1800s-2005. International Journal of African Historical Studies, 42(1), 81-103.

[8] Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989(1), 139–167. https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclf/vol1989/iss1/8

[9] __________ (2020). She Coined the Term 'Intersectionality' Over 30 Years Ago. Here's What It Means to Her Today. Time. https://time.com/5786710/kimberle-crenshaw-intersectionality/

[10] Ekwe, O. C. (2023). Dealing with Our Apathy through the Radio: Analysis of the Role of FRCN Nnoko Umunwanyi Programme in Influencing Women to Participate in Politics. CORE. https://www.core.ac.uk/search/?q=author%3A(Ekwe%2C%20Okwudiri%20C

[11] Erunke, C. E., & Abdul, S. U. (2013). The Role of Women in Nigerian Politics: Addressing the Gender Question for an Enhanced Political Representation in the Fourth Republic. International Journal of Gender and Women's Studies, 1(1), 45-55.

[12] Ette, M., & Akpan-Obong, P. (2023). Negotiating Access and Privilege: Politics of Female Participation and Representation in Nigeria. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 58(7), 1291-1306. https://www.doi.org/10.1177/00219096221084253

[13] Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2021). *National Gender Policy (Revised 2021-2026)*. Abuja: Ministry of Women and Gender Affairs. https://www..wrapanigeria.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/NATIONAL-GENDER-POLICY.PDF

[14] Idike, A. N., Okeke, R. C., Okorie, C. O., Ogba, F. N., & Ugodulunwa, C. A. (2020). Gender, Democracy, and National Development in Nigeria. Sage Open, 10(2). https://doi.org/101177/2158244020924436

[15] Iloka, P. (2021). Political Participation of Women in Nigeria: A Legal Overview. International Journal of Business & Law Research, 9(3), 168-184.

[16] Independent National Electoral Commission. (2023). 2023 General Election: Final List of Candidates for National Elections. Abuja: INEC. https://inecnigeria.org/2022/09/Final-List-of-Candidates-for-National-Elections-1.pdf

[17] Jacob, R., & Emayi, J. (2022). Women and Political Participation in Nigeria: A Case Study of Taraba State. Journal of Positive School Psychology, 6(8), 4975-4990.

[18] Nkwede, J. O., & Obani, E. F. (2025). Sexual Politics and Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria: Theorizing the Mosses. African Journal of Politics and Administrative Studies, 18(3). https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajpas/article/view/306494

[19] Okafor, E. E., Akinwale, A. A., & Doyin-Hassan, A. (2007). Feminisation of Underdevelopment in Nigeria: Some Theoretical Issues. The Anthropologist, 9(3), 237-245.

[20] Olayode, K. A., Ekanade, I., & Rakubu, K. (2025). Addressing the Gender Bias: Positioning Nigeria's Democracy for Good Governance and Sustainable Development. e-Bangi: Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 22(2). https://ejournal.ukm.my/ebngi/article/view/88143

[21] Oloyede, O. (2015). Monitoring Participation of Women in Politics in Nigeria. Abuja: National Bureau of Statistics. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/gender/finland_oct2016/documents/nigeria_paper.pdf

[22] Okeke, C. O., & Idike, A. N. (2024). Gender Mainstreaming and Women's Political Participation in South-East Nigeria. African Journal of Gender and Development, 7(2), 45-62.

[23] Okeke, P. E. (2023). Culture: The Obstacle to Active Female Participation in Governance among the Igbo of Nigeria. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 58(4). https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/ereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiLd=ART00087163

[24] Onwuka, E. C., & Nwosu, B. O. (2024). Affirmative Action and Women's Political Representation in Nigeria: The Igbo Experience, 1999-2023. Central Asian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 8(3). https://archive.org/details/httpscajssh.centralasianstudies.orgindex.phpcajssharticleview714

[25] Pleasure, O. K. (n. d.). Womanism and Feminism: A Black Woman’s Perspective on Intersectional Struggles. https://www.academia.edu/130034664/Womanism_and_Feminism_A_Black_Womans_Perspective_on_Intersectional_Struggles

[26] Otu, A. (2025). Women Political Participation and Representation in Nigeria's Fourth Republic: Challenges and Prospects. Nigerian Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 23(1), 144-164. https://nasajournal.com.ng/volume-23-issue-1-2025/2167-2/

[27] Ugwuja, A.A. & Ekpootu, M. (2023). The Nigerian State and Affirmative Action on Women Empowerment: The Igbo Experience, 1999 – 2015. Internet Archive. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/httpscajssh.centralasianstudies.orgindex.phpcajssharticleview714

[28] Usman, A. M., & Zuwaira, H. R. (2025). Women Political Participations: A Study of Nasarawa State from 1999 to 2022. African Journal of Gender and Development, 8(1-2), 13-27. https://ajgd.oauife.edu.ng/index.php?journal=ajgd&page=article&path[]=198

[29] Uzodike, N., & Ojukwu, C. (2025). Breaking Barriers: Charting the Path to Women's Political Empowerment in Nigeria. Journal of Human Rights and Social Work, 10, 692-705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-025-00395-7

[30] World Bank & UN Women. (2024). Women's Political Participation and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank Group.

@article{1715866,
      author = {Ebele Eucahria Okafor, Mabel Nkechinyere Eze},
      title = {Igbo Women’s Political Participation in Nigeria: Impact of Underrepresentation on Local and National Policy Outcomes},
      journal = {Iconic Research And Engineering Journals},
      year = {2026},
      volume = {9},
      number = {10},
      pages = {1150-1161},
      issn = {2456-8880},
      url = {https://www.irejournals.com/formatedpaper/1715866.pdf},
      abstract = {This article examines Igbo women's political participation in Nigeria, focusing on its effects on policy outcomes at local and national levels. Although women make up around half of Nigeria's population, they hold less than 5 per cent of seats in the federal parliament. Igbo women face even greater marginalisation within the political structures of the South-East region. The study draws on secondary data from the Independent National Electoral Commission and the National Bureau of Statistics, as well as scholarly literature from 1999 to 2025. It uses intersectional feminist theory and the revised National Gender Policy as analytical tools. Findings reveal a paradox: Igbo women excel at grassroots mobilisation and constitute significant voting blocs, yet rarely secure elective or appointive positions. This is due to patriarchal cultural norms, party barriers, and economic exclusion. Their underrepresentation impacts policy. Neglect of women-centric infrastructure, little legislative attention to maternal health and gender-based violence, and a lack of gender perspectives in South-East state budgets are some consequences. From 1999 to 2023, Igbo women held fewer than 4 per cent of National Assembly seats in the South-East, and no female governor has been elected in the five South-East states. The article adds to debates on the gap between participation and representation. It argues that increasing numbers without removing structural barriers leads to "participation without power." The article recommends implementing the Reserved Seats Bill, enforcing the 35 per cent affirmative action, and deliberately including women in party leadership.},
      keywords = {Igbo Women, Political Participation, Underrepresentation, Policy Outcomes, Nigeria, Affirmative Action, Gender Equality},
      month = {April},
  }