The Feasibility of Shallow Foundations for Low-Rise Buildings in Reclaimed Areas of Lagos: A State of the-Art Review

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@article{1718590,
      author = {Akinyode Opeyemi S., Akintayo Folake O.},
      title = {The Feasibility of Shallow Foundations for Low-Rise Buildings in Reclaimed Areas of Lagos: A State of the-Art Review},
      journal = {Iconic Research And Engineering Journals},
      year = {2026},
      volume = {9},
      number = {12},
      pages = {213-233},
      issn = {2456-8880},
      url = {https://www.irejournals.com/formatedpaper/1718590.pdf},
      abstract = {Lagos, Nigeria's commercial nerve center, has experienced extensive land reclamation along its coastal corridors Victoria Island, Lekki Peninsula, and the Eko Atlantic project to accommodate rapid urbanization and high-value real estate development. These reclaimed lands present unique geotechnical challenges for foundation design, characterized by heterogeneous fill materials underlain by thick sequences of soft, highly compressible organic clays and peats. This review critically examines the feasibility of shallow foundations for low-rise buildings (1-3 storeys) in these reclaimed terrains, synthesizing evidence from peer-reviewed geotechnical investigations, geophysical surveys, and international case studies published between 2000 and 2026. The analysis reveals that conventional shallow foundations—strip and isolated footings—are generally infeasible without extensive ground improvement due to: (i) reclaimed fill thicknesses of 2-12 meters with SPT-N values ranging 4-15, (ii) underlying soft clay layers (the "Lagos cohesive layer") exhibiting SPT-N values below 10, shear wave velocities of 100-160 m/s, and compression indices of 0.6-1.2, and (iii) predicted consolidation settlements of 50-150 mm that exceed tolerable limits for low-rise structures (15-25 mm differential settlement). However, under specific conditions—where competent layers exist within 3-5 meters, engineered granular fills have been properly compacted, or ground improvement techniques (stone columns, preloading with wick drains, dynamic compaction) have been implemented—raft foundations and reinforced shallow systems may provide viable alternatives to deep foundations. International experience from analogous reclaimed terrains (Dhaka, Bangladesh; San Francisco Bay; Appalachian valley fills) reinforces the necessity of conservative design, comprehensive site investigation (minimum borehole density of 1 per 200 m² to depths of 15-20 m), and the incorporation of flexible structural elements to accommodate residual settlements. This review provides a decision framework for foundation selection, settlement tolerance criteria, and design recommendations tailored to Lagos's coastal geotechnical environment, addressing a critical knowledge gap for sustainable infrastructure development in West Africa's rapidly urbanizing coastal zones.},
      keywords = {Shallow Foundations, Lagos Coastal Geotechnics, Bearing Capacity, Settlement Analysis, Ground Improvement, Low-Rise Buildings.},
      month = {June},
      doi = {https://doi.org/10.64388/IREV9I12-1718590}
  }