The Politicization of Sacred Spaces in Kenya: Examining the Nexus between Goonism and Political Violence

References

[1] Anderson, D. M. (2002). Vigilantes, violence and the politics of public order in Kenya. African Affairs, 101(405), 531–555. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/101.405.531

[2] Appleby, R. S. (2000). The ambivalence of the sacred: Religion, violence, and reconciliation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

[3] Barkan, E., & Barkey, K. (Eds.). (2014). Choreographies of shared sacred sites: Religion, politics, and conflict resolution. Columbia University Press.

[4] Bekoe, D. A. (Ed.). (2012). Voting in fear: Electoral violence in sub-Saharan Africa. United States Institute of Peace Press.

[5] Berryman, P. (1987). Liberation theology: Essential facts about the revolutionary theological movement in Latin America and beyond. Temple University Press.

[6] Boone, C. (2014). Property and political order in Africa: Land rights and the structure of politics. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139629256

[7] Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power. Harvard University Press.

[8] Bowen, G. A. (2009). Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qualitative Research Journal, 9(2), 27–40. https://doi.org/10.3316/QRJ0902027

[9] Bratton, M. (2008). Vote buying and violence. Journal of Democracy, 19(2), 99–112. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2008.0022

[10] Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic analysis: A practical guide. SAGE Publications.

[11] Casanova, J. (1994). Public religions in the modern world. University of Chicago Press.

[12] Cavanaugh, W. T. (2009). The myth of religious violence: Secular ideology and the roots of modern conflict. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385045.001.0001

[13] Cerullo, T. (2025, November 30). Gunshots as chaos erupt in Nairobi's Kariobangi North during church service attended by Gachagua. Kenyans.co.ke. https://www.kenyans.co.ke/news/118511-gunshots-chaos-erupt-nairobis-kariobangi-north-during-church-service-attended-gachagua

[14] Cheeseman, N. (2015). Democracy in Africa: Successes, failures, and the struggle for political reform. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139030892

[15] Chidester, D. (2018). Religion: Material dynamics. University of California Press.

[16] Coady, C. A. J. (1986). The idea of violence. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 3(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5930.1986.tb00045.x

[17] Collier, P. (2009). Wars, guns, and votes: Democracy in dangerous places. Harper.

[18] Collier, P., & Vicente, P. C. (2014). Votes and violence. Journal of the European Economic Association, 12(4), 1011–1039. https://doi.org/10.1111/jeea.12100

[19] Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.

[20] Day, K. (2014). Faith on the avenue: Religion on a city street. Oxford University Press.

[21] Deacon, G. (2020). The political role of Christian churches. In N. Cheeseman, K. K. Klaas, & E. M. Muriaas (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of Kenyan politics (pp. 137–149). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198815693.013.8

[22] Diamond, L. (2015). Facing up to the democratic recession. Journal of Democracy, 26(1), 141–155.

[23] Droz, Y., & Maupeu, H. (2013). Christianismes et democratisation au Kenya. Social Compass, 60(1), 22–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768612471771

[24] Durkheim, E. (1995). The elementary forms of religious life (K. E. Fields, Trans.). Free Press. (Original work published 1912).

[25] Eliade, M. (1959). The sacred and the profane: The nature of religion. Harcourt, Brace.

[26] Fox, J. (2018). An introduction to religion and politics: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315183787

[27] Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, peace, and peace research. Journal of Peace Research, 6(3), 167–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/002234336900600301

[28] Gurr, T. R. (1970). Why men rebel. Princeton University Press.

[29] Habermas, J. (1989). The structural transformation of the public sphere: An inquiry into a category of bourgeois society (T. Burger, Trans.). MIT Press.

[30] Habermas, J. (2006). Religion in the public sphere. European Journal of Philosophy, 14(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0378.2006.00241.x

[31] Habermas, J. (2008). Religion in the public sphere. In Between naturalism and religion: Philosophical essays (C. Cronin, Trans., pp. 114–147). Polity Press.

[32] Hay, C. (2007). Why we hate politics. Polity Press.

[33] Haynes, J. (2019). Religion and politics in contemporary Africa. Oxford Bibliographies in African Studies. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/obo/9780199846733-0209

[34] Haynes, J. (2020). Religion, conflict and post-secular politics. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367853655

[35] Juergensmeyer, M. (2017). Terror in the mind of God: The global rise of religious violence (4th ed.). University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520965164

[36] Kagwanja, P. M. (2003). Facing Mount Kenya or facing Mecca? The Mungiki, ethnic violence and the politics of the Moi succession in Kenya, 1987–2002. African Affairs, 102(406), 25–49. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a138810

[37] Kalyvas, S. N. (2006). The logic of violence in civil war. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511818462

[38] Kimani, B. (2024, November 28). Gachagua forced to flee as goons disrupt Limuru burial, several injured. Citizen Digital. https://www.citizen.digital/news/gachagua-forced-to-flee-as-goons-disrupt-limuru-burial-service-n353715

[39] Kisia, A. (2026, June 14). How goons stormed All Saints Cathedral during budget forum. The Star. https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2026-06-14-how-goons-stormed-all-saints-during-budget-forum

[40] Knott, K. (2005). The location of religion: A spatial analysis. Equinox.

[41] Lefebvre, H. (1991). The production of space (D. Nicholson-Smith, Trans.). Blackwell.

[42] Makori, J., Ochieng’, A. L., Ekwenye, J., & Wafula, I. (2024). The church and violence during multiparty elections in Kenya from 1992 to 2017. African Quarterly Social Science Review, 1(4), 53–75. https://doi.org/10.51867/AQSSR.1.4.5

[43] Maluleke, T. S. (2005). Faces and phases of Protestantism in African contexts: The Jacobus Capitein heritage. Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae, 31(2), 1–35.

[44] Marx, K. (1976). Capital: A critique of political economy (Vol. 1, B. Fowkes, Trans.). Penguin Books. (Original work published 1867.)

[45] Mazumdar, S., & Mazumdar, S. (2004). Religion and place attachment: A study of sacred places. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24(3), 385–397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.08.005

[46] McAdam, D., Tarrow, S., & Tilly, C. (2001). Dynamics of contention. Cambridge University Press.

[47] Metz, J. B. (1980). Faith in history and society: Toward a practical fundamental theology. Seabury Press.

[48] Moltmann, J. (1967). Theology of hope: On the ground and the implications of a Christian eschatology. Harper & Row.

[49] Mueller, S. D. (2008). The political economy of Kenya's crisis. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 2(2), 185–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/17531050802058395

[50] Mutura, J. (2026, June 17). Church leaders blame State; warn political thuggery could lead to violence. The Standard

[51] National Council of Churches of Kenya. (2021, October 7). NCCK guidelines for ministering to political leaders and aspirants. Retrieved August 17th, 2026, from https://ncck.org/ncck-guidelines-for-ministering-to-political-leaders-and-aspirants/

[52] National Council of Churches of Kenya. (2024, July 16). Guidelines on ministering to political leaders—2024. Retrieved August 11th , 2026, from https://ncck.org/guidelines-on-ministering-to-political-leaders-2024-2/

[53] Omondi, D. (2025, November 30). Police open probe into Gachagua church violence. The Standard. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/national/article/2001535433/police-open-probe-into-gachagua-church-violence

[54] Pearson, G., & Stott, C. (2007). Football hooliganism: Policing and the war on the English disease. Pennant Books.

[55] Polinder, S. (2024). Religion and the prevention of election violence: Lessons from Kenya. The Review of Faith & International Affairs, 22(3), 92–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2024.2309004

[56] Putnam, R. D., & Campbell, D. E. (2010). American grace: How religion divides and unites us. Simon & Schuster.

[57] Raleigh, C. (2016). Pragmatic and promiscuous: Explaining the rise of competitive political violence. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 60(2), 273–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002714541587

[58] Saunders, B. et al (2018). Saturation in qualitative research: Exploring its conceptualization and operationalization. Quality & Quantity, 52, 1893–1907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0574-8

[59] Saya, M. (2026, January 25). Gachagua, clerics evacuated from church through 'panya' route as chaos rock service. The Star. https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2026-01-25-gachagua-clerics-use-panya-route-from-church

[60] Schmitt, C. (2005). Political theology: Four chapters on the concept of sovereignty (G. Schwab, Ed. & Trans.; T. B. Strong, Foreword). University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1922).

[61] Straus, S., & Taylor, C. (2012). Democratization and electoral violence in sub-Saharan Africa, 1990–2008. In D. A. Bekoe (Ed.), Voting in fear: Electoral violence in sub-Saharan Africa (pp. 15–38). United States Institute of Peace Press.

[62] Thiessen, J., & McAlpine, B. (2013). Sacred space: Function and mission from a sociological and theological perspective. International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church, 13(2), 133–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/1474225X.2013.781911

[63] Tilly, C. (2003). The politics of collective violence. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511819135

[64] Tongola, M. (2025, April 6). Goons disrupt service at PCEA Kasarani attended by Gachagua. The Standard. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/politics/article/2001515698/chaos-erupts-at-pcea-kasarani-during-gachaguas-visit

[65] Tongola, M. (2026, January 25). Church service attended by Gachagua disrupted by tear gas in Othaya. The Standard.

[66] Van de Walle, N. (2007). Meet the new boss, same as the old boss? The evolution of political clientelism in Africa. In H. Kitschelt & S. I. Wilkinson (Eds.), Patrons, clients and policies: Patterns of democratic accountability and political competition (pp. 50–67). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511585869.002

[67] Wanza, P. (2026, June 14). Police launch probe into All Saints Cathedral goon attack. Kenya Broadcasting Corporation. https://www.kbc.co.ke/police-launch-probe-into-all-saints-cathedral-goon-attack/

[68] Weber, M. (2002). The Protestant ethic and the “spirit” of capitalism (P. Baehr & G. C. Wells, Eds. & Trans.). Penguin Books. (Original work published 1905).

[69] Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: Design and methods (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.

@article{1722817,
      author = {Ignatius Wafula Sikuku, Benjamin Wafula Werunga, Martin Otundo Richard , Elizabeth N. Mabele, Margaret Nanjala Matisi},
      title = {The Politicization of Sacred Spaces in Kenya: Examining the Nexus between Goonism and Political Violence},
      journal = {Iconic Research And Engineering Journals},
      year = {2026},
      volume = {10},
      number = {3},
      pages = {483-506},
      issn = {2456-8880},
      url = {https://www.irejournals.com/formatedpaper/1722817.pdf},
      abstract = {This paper examines the politicization of sacred spaces in Kenya, focusing on the nexus between goonism and political violence. Guided by Political Theology theory, the paper interprets sacred spaces as contested arenas where religious authority, political legitimacy, symbolic power, and struggles over access intersect. An interpretivist philosophical paradigm and qualitative multiple case study design were employed. Data were collected exclusively from publicly accessible online documentary sources, including news reports, official security and government communications, religious institutional statements and guidelines, audiovisual materials, and other relevant digital sources covering 2022–2026. The principal advantage of documentary research was its capacity to provide multiple contemporaneous accounts of politically sensitive incidents and enable cross-source verification; its key limitation was that online evidence may be incomplete, politically framed, or insufficient to establish responsibility for particular acts. Purposive case selection and documentary triangulation were used to examine the Ngarariga/Limuru disruption in 2024, PCEA Mwiki and PCEA Kariobangi North incidents in 2025, and Witima ACK Church and All Saints Cathedral incidents in 2026, selected because they represented different manifestations and stages of politicization, organised disruption, and political violence. Documentary source saturation determined the adequacy of the documentary corpus.  Data were analyzed thematically through cross case comparison, with attention to political mobilization, organized coercion, violence, institutional responses, and the evidentiary status of competing claims. Findings demonstrate that politicization occurs along a continuum from legitimate political participation, civic engagement, and peace building to political messaging, patronage, contested access, organized disruption, intimidation, and violence. The evidence does not establish an automatic relationship between political engagement and violence. Rather, it indicates that goonism can function as an escalation mechanism where politically significant sacred spaces become sites of competing claims over access, visibility, and legitimacy and organized groups employ coercive methods. The paper concludes that sacred spaces become particularly vulnerable when political competition intersects with organized coercion and contested institutional boundaries. It recommends strengthening religious institutional autonomy, maintaining clear boundaries governing partisan political activity, improving coordination between religious and security institutions, and ensuring impartial investigation and accountability for violence.},
      keywords = {Sacred Spaces, Politicization, Goonism, Political Violence, Political Theology and Religious Institutions},
      month = {September},
      doi = {https://doi.org/10.64388/IREV10I3-1722817}
  }