Green Catalyst Development from Cordia sebestena Biomass for Enhanced Biodiesel Yield from Non-Edible Oils

References

[1] ACC Science, “A comprehensive review of biomass-derived heterogeneous catalysts for efficient biodiesel production,” Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection, 2025. ACC Science

[2] P. T. Anastas and J. C. Warner, Green chemistry: Theory and practice. Oxford University Press, 1998.

[3] Astute Analytica, “Green chemicals market valuation is skyrocketing to reach US$28.05 billion by 2033,” GlobeNewswire, 2025. GlobeNewswire

[4] Abubakar, K. Silas, H. M. Kefas, and A. Titus, “Sustainable biodiesel synthesis from oleic acid: Kinetic study with carbonized bambara nutshell catalyst,” Latin American Journal of Energy Research, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 102–118, 2024.

[5] Abubakar, H. M. Kefas, K. Silas, and A. Titus, “Green thermodynamics for biofuel synthesis using bambara nutshell catalyst: Toward sustainable energy solutions,” Journal of Innovative Engineering and Sustainability, 2025.

[6] Catalysts, “Catalytic properties and structural optimization of solid transesterification catalysts to enhance the efficiency of biodiesel synthesis,” Catalysts, vol. 15, no. 3, Art. no. 239, 2025.

[7] Chem Copilot, “Regulatory trends in green chemistry: EPA, REACH, and the EU's new chemical policies,” May 15, 2025. Chem Copilot

[8] Y. Chen, W. Zhang, and H. Li, “Advancements in basic zeolites for biodiesel production via transesterification,” Chemistry, vol. 5, no. 1, Art. no. 32, 2023.

[9] “Determination of acidic and basic properties on solid surfaces,” in Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis, ch. 2, 2008. ScienceDirect

[10] IntechOpen, “Kinetics of transesterification processes for biodiesel production,” in Biofuels, 2018. IntechOpen

[11] K. N. Krishnamurthy, S. N. Sridhara, and C. S. Ananda Kumar, “Optimization and kinetic study of biodiesel production from Hydnocarpus wightiana oil and dairy waste scum using snail shell CaO nano-catalyst,” Renewable Energy, vol. 146, pp. 280–296, 2020. ScienceDirect

[12] X. Li, X. Jia, W. Li, S. Jia, S. Zhang, J. Song, and J. Wang, “Comparison of high-efficiency MgO/Na2CO3 and MgO/K2CO3 as heterogeneous solid base catalysts for biodiesel production from soybean oil,” Molecules, vol. 30, no. 13, Art. no. 2876, 2025. MDPI

[13] “Methods and catalysts for green biodiesel production from unrefined low-grade feedstock,” U.S. Patent literature, n.d. USPTO

[14] npj Clean Energy, “RSM based optimization of process parameters of biodiesel production from waste palm oil using modified nano-catalyst,” npj Clean Energy, 2025. Nature

[15] F. Oliveira, M. Santos, and R. Ferreira, “Green chemistry strategies in pulping and biomass valorization: Toward a circular bioeconomy,” ResearchGate, 2024.

[16] M. Sarno and M. Iuliano, “Advancements in sustainable biodiesel production: A comprehensive review of bio-waste derived catalysts,” Waste Management, 2024.

[17] ScienceDirect, “Transesterification,” in ScienceDirect Topics, n.d. ScienceDirect

[18] ScienceDirect, “Advancements in catalysts, process intensification, and feedstock utilization for sustainable biodiesel production,” Sustainable Chemistry for the Environment, 2024.

[19] ScienceDirect, “Biomass waste-derived catalysts for biodiesel production: Recent advances and key challenges,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Jan. 19, 2024.

[20] ScienceDirect, “Green chemistry metrics: Insights from case studies in fine chemical processes,” Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy, 2025. ScienceDirect

[21] R. A. Sheldon, “Metrics of green chemistry and sustainability: Past, present, and future,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 32–48, 2018. ACS

[22] T. Soderberg, “Nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions in the laboratory,” in Organic Chemistry with a Biological Emphasis, vol. 2.0, LibreTexts, 2022. LibreTexts

[23] K. Tanabe, Solid acids and bases: Their catalytic properties. Academic Press, 1970.

[24] S. Tesfaye, M. Alemu, and G. Gonfa, “Optimization and clean synthesis of biodiesel from Rumex crispus leaves using calcium oxide derived from mango seed shell as a nanocatalysts,” Reaction Kinetics, Mechanisms and Catalysis, 2023.

[25] Tikrit Journal of Engineering Sciences, “Modelling, optimization and green metrics evaluation of bio-catalytic synthesis of biodiesel,” Tikrit Journal of Engineering Sciences, 2020. Tikrit Journal of Engineering Sciences

[26] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “EPA calls for nominations for 2025 Green Chemistry Challenge Awards,” Aug. 29, 2025. U.S. EPA

[27] R. Vahid and M. Haghighi, “Biodiesel production from sunflower oil over MgO/MgAl2O4 nanocatalysts: Effect of fuel type on catalyst nanostructure and performance,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 134, pp. 290–300, 2017. ScienceDirect

[28] I. Osman et al., “A review of biomass-derived heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production,” Catalysts, vol. 12, no. 12, Art. no. 1501, 2022.

[29] T. Boonyuen et al., “Bio-derived catalysts: A current trend of catalysts used in biodiesel production,” Catalysts, vol. 11, no. 7, Art. no. 812, 2021.

[30] R. Lakhani et al., “Emerging heterogeneous catalysis for valorization of biomass-derived platform molecules: The systematic review toward sustainable biorefinery applications,” Advanced Energy and Sustainability Research, 2026. Wiley

@article{1723546,
      author = {Vijaykumar Tumbad, Dr. K. S. Katagi},
      title = {Green Catalyst Development from Cordia sebestena Biomass for Enhanced Biodiesel Yield from Non-Edible Oils},
      journal = {Iconic Research And Engineering Journals},
      year = {2025},
      volume = {9},
      number = {6},
      pages = {2676-2686},
      issn = {2456-8880},
      url = {https://www.irejournals.com/formatedpaper/1723546.pdf},
      abstract = {The global drive for Green-chemistry inspired transformation of organic syntheses, (and more particularly, the industrially relevant transesterification reaction which converts triglycerides to fatty-acid methyl esters), to produce more atom-economical, waste minimized and "Greener" product pathways-following the twelve guiding principles of 'Green Chemistry', is driving an intense research interest to replace traditional catalysts used to perform the ester bond forming / cleaving chemistry with those based on biological/renewable/non-toxic natural sources. The heavy environmental cost of (e.g.) the conventional homogeneous mineral/alkali-based catalysts generally employed, where, despite achieving nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions with high efficiencies in formation of esters, they have very high aqueous hazardous waste loads associated with neutralization processes, poor recovery/reuse over multiple reaction cycles, or are synthesized via energy-intensive or fossil-fuel based chemistries themselves. The same applies with synthetic heterogeneous oxide catalysts based upon mined and petrochemical materials. Against this ongoing (unmet) Green-Chemistry requirement for effective catalyst systems for ester synthesis chemistry this present conceptual paper aims to systematically explore the green chemistry aspects related to producing a novel heterogeneously-active catalyst for bio-diesel synthesis starting with a waste stream, i.e. Cordia-sebestena (a commonly found and discarded ornamental tree with abundant seed husk, shell and wooden parts), by way of an environmentally benign, "low-impact," & "reagent-minimal" green-synthesis route through controlled thermal pyrolysis of the Cordia-sebestena biomass to create a catalyst which, when operated in a heterogeneous fashion through a purely organically-driven mechanism based on the nucleophilic acyl substitution pathways governing the transesterification process: can provide improved catalyst recovery/reuse, increased fatty-acid methyl ester yield/selectivity and utilise renewable raw material feedstock. It can readily satisfy core Green-Chemistry principles such as renewable feedstock, waste prevention and reduced usage of auxiliary substances. The focus of this conceptual work lies in establishing a novel mechanistic conceptual link, in the pursuit of Green Catalyst theory/Design principles through understanding structure-activity-relationships between the converted biomass structure, and its effectiveness as a catalyst to promote biodiesel formation via the mechanistic underpinnings of the reaction, specifically concerning the nucleophilic acyl substitution process, to create a sustainable, atom-economical, & environmentally beneficial approach towards biodiesel manufacturing.},
      keywords = {Green Catalyst, Cordia sebestena, Biodiesel Synthesis, Organic Transesterification, Non-Edible Oils, Sustainable Chemistry},
      month = {December},
  }