Home / Current Issue / Paper 1713671
Comparative Assessment of the Rapid Immune Chromatographic Test (RICT) and Direct Fluorescent Antibody Test (DFAT) for Rapid and Accurate Laboratory Diagnosis of Rabies
Subject area: Biological & Medical Sciences · Area of research: Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
DOI: https://doi.org/10.64388/IREV9I7-1713671
Abstract
Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease that continues to present a public health challenge globally, in particular the endemic regions such as sub-Saharan Africa. In Nigeria, rabies is mainly acquired through dog-mediated exposures, and indeed the true burden is often underestimated due to poor surveillance and diagnostic tools. Rapid and accurate laboratory diagnosis is vital to effective post exposure prophylaxis (PEP) and outbreak control. The Direct Fluorescent Antibody Test (DFAT), is considered to be the gold standard and is reliable for detecting rabies, but it requires proper trained personnel and specialized equipment which is needed in many resource-limited areas. This investigation examined how good a Rapid Rabies Test (RRT), a type of Rapid Immune Chromatographic Test (RICT), is by comparing it to the DFAT on a cohort of 234 canine brain tissues from Nigeria’s North Central states (Benue, Nasarawa, and Plateau). The DFAT found a prevalence of Rabies virus (RABV) antigens of 8.12% in the cohort examined. The RRT diagnostic test was found to have a sensitivity of 78.9% (95% CI: 56.7–92.2%), and specificity of 98.1% (95% CI: 95.7–99.4%). The high specificity of the RRT diagnostic test supports its use as a quick and on-site screening mechanism for rabies and as an early detection test, while the moderate sensitivity indicates that some cases may be missed, resulting in a false negative test result. This report concludes that RRT is a great preliminary screening tool for rabies in the field, and is certainly an acceptable test for rabies screening, it should not be used as a stand-alone diagnostic test and not replace the DFAT that would be used to ultimately assess canine rabies, especially if it is to be used as part of public health interventions, as the public health consequences of missing rabies cases could be quite acute.
Keywords
Rabies, Diagnosis, Rapid Rabies Test, Direct Fluorescent Antibody Test, Sensitivity, Specificity, One Health
References
[1] Abubakar, A. T., Al-Mustapha, A. I., Oyewo, M., Ibrahim, A., Abdulrahim, I., Yakub, J. M., & Dacheux, L. (2023). Prospects for dog rabies elimination in Nigeria by 2030. Zoonoses and Public Health, 71(1), 84–98.
[2] Acharya, K. P., Chand, R., Huettmann, F., & Ghimire, T. R. (2022). Rabies elimination: Is it feasible without considering wildlife? Journal of Tropical Medicine, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9442013
[3] Adaji, J. O., Kwaga, J. K. P., Sallau, A. B., & Kia, G. S. (2022). Molecular study on the N gene of rabies virus isolated in dogs from two selected local government areas in Benue State. IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS), 15(3), 1–9.
[4] Adedeji, A. O., Okonko, I. O., Eyarefe, O. D., Adedeji, O. B., Babalola, E. T., Ojezele, M. O., & Amusan, T. A. (2010). An overview of rabies-History, epidemiology, control and possible elimination. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 4(22), 2327–2338.
[5] Albertini, A. A., Wernimont, A. K., Muziol, T., Ravelli, R. B., Clapier, C. R., Schoehn, G., & Ruigrok, R. W. (2006). Crystal structure of the rabies virus nucleoprotein-RNA complex. Science, 313(5785), 360–363.
[6] Al-Mustapha, A. I., Tijani, A. A., Muftau, O., Bamidele, F. O., Ibrahim, A., Osu, M. S., & Heikinheimo, A. (2020). Baseline epidemiology and associated dog ecology study towards stepwise elimination of rabies in Kwara state, Nigeria. bioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.06.08.140517
[7] Alvarado-Fernández, J. C., Salas-Rojas, C., Estrella-Morales, J., González, R., Cordero-solorzano, J., Aguilar-Arguedas, O., & Leon, B. (2023). Evaluation of a rapid immunochromatographic assay for the diagnosis of rabies in regional laboratories of Costa Rica. Veterinaria México OA, 10(4), e1106.
[8] Arai, Y. T., Kuzmin, I. V., Kameoka, Y., & Botvinkin, A. D. (2003). New lyssavirus genotype from the lesser mouse-eared bat (Myotis blythi), Kyrghyzstan. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 9(3), 333.
[9] Arai, Y. T., Yamada, K., Kameoka, Y., Horimoto, T., Yamamoto, K., Yabe, S., & Tashiro, M. (1997). Nucleoprotein gene analysis of fixed and street rabies virus variants using RT-PCR. Archives of Virology, 142, 1787–1796.
[10] Awoyomi, O. J., Oludare, O. M., & Samuel, F. T. (2019). The use of modern molecular methods in the diagnosis of rabies. International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine, 7(1), 1-8.
[11] Blumberg, L. (2024). One Health and the control of rabies in Africa. University of Pretoria.
[12] Brunker, K., Fofana, I., & Rueda, D. (2020). Genomic surveillance of rabies virus in Africa. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 584558.
[13] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2022). Rabies. https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/index.html
[14] Eze, I. C., Shittu, I., Ahmed, A., & Olanrewaju, J. O. (2020). Emergence of new rabies variants in dogs slaughtered for human consumption in southeastern Nigeria. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 26(11), 2634–2642.
[15] Faber, K., Finke, S., Föhr, U. G., & Conzelmann, K. K. (2002). A recombinant rabies virus expressing an immunodominant epitope of the canine distemper virus nucleoprotein. Journal of General Virology, 83, 1735–1741.
[16] Faria, N. R., Karayel, M., Sambo, M., LeBreton, M., Lembo, T., & Hampson, K. (2016). Genomic and phylogenetic analysis of rabies virus in Africa. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 214(Suppl 4), S333–S342.
[17] Fooks, A. R., & McElihnney, L. M. (2000). A review of rabies in Nigeria. Veterinary Record, 147(2), 48–51.
[18] Freuling, C. M., Hampson, K., & Kieny, M. P. (2012). Bat lyssaviruses in Europe. Virus Research, 166(1-2), 1–13.
[19] Hampson, K., Coudeville, L., Lembo, T., Sambo, M., & LeBreton, M. (2015). Estimating the global burden of rabies. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 9(3), e0003709.
[20] Jacob, Y., Badrane, H., Bahloul, C., Lopez-Meya, B. A., Tsiang, H., & Ceccaldi, P. E. (2001). Rabies virus phosphoprotein interacts with the p75 neurotrophin receptor and mediates viral entry. Journal of Virology, 75(14), 6766–6772.
[21] Jayakumar, R., Raghunandan, H. V., Sreenivasa, P., Ranganathan, T., & Madhusudana, S. N. (1997). Rabies virus nucleoprotein-based rapid enzyme immunoassay for diagnosis of rabies. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 35(2), 406–410.
[22] Johnson, E., Alimi, Y., Alao, O., Shittu, I., & Nwachukwu, A. (2002). Molecular epidemiology of rabies in Nigeria. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 38(4), 754–761.
[23] Kayali, P., Ogo, I., Umoh, A., & Ojo, S. (2023). Rabies in dog meat handlers and other high-risk groups in West Africa. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 28(8), 654–663.
[24] Kia, G. S. N., Shittu, I., Odah, J. O., Osinubi, M. V., Okwori, A. E., Ojo, S. A., & Balarabe, R. A. (2018). Whole genome characterization of a rabies virus from a dog slaughtered for human consumption in Nigeria. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 63, 211–215.
[25] Konzing, L., Kwaga, J. K. P., Kia, G. S. N., Kazeem, H. M., Mkpuma, N., Tekki, I. S., & Muhammad, M. (2023). Molecular characterization of rabies virus in trade dogs from Plateau state, Nigeria. Sokoto Journal of Veterinary Sciences, 21(1), 25–32.
[26] Krebs, J. W., Davis, A. J., Arko, R. K., Nace, D., & Childs, J. E. (2003). Rabies among infrequently reported mammalian carnivores in the United States, 1960–2000. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 39(2), 253–261.
[27] Kuye, A., Dauda, M., Ameh, A. O., Danladi, M. I., Atuman, Y. J., Kia, G. S. N., & Häsler, B. (2024). An assessment of the operationality and factors influencing the effectiveness of rabies surveillance in Gombe State, Nigeria. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 18(5), e0012154.
[28] Langevin, C., Bahloul, C., Jacob, Y., Tsiang, H., & Ceccaldi, P. E. (2002). Rabies virus glycoprotein (RVG) is a trimeric ligand for the N-terminal cysteine-rich domain of the mammalian p75 neurotrophin receptor. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 277, 37655–37662.
[29] Mshelbwala, M., Bawa, B., & Ngwe, S. (2021). Rabies in Nigeria: A review of the past two decades of disease burden. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, 6(4), 184.
[30] National Veterinary Research Institute [NVRI]. (2022). Annual Report on Rabies Control Activities in Nigeria.
[31] Odeh, J. O., Shittu, I., Ahmed, A., & Olanrewaju, J. O. (2014). Knowledge, attitude and practices of residents of Kafanchan on rabies. International Journal of Veterinary Science, 3(2), 1–6.
[32] Odita, V. C., Okomo, E., Sadiq, M. I., & Ede, L. (2020). The role of dog vaccination campaigns in rabies control in Nigeria. International Journal of Medical Science and Public Health, 9(4), 211–218.
[33] O'Donnell, E., O’Donnell, M., & Hampson, K. (2019). Rapid, cost-effective, real-time sequencing of rabies virus from a remote field laboratory. Gates Open Research, 3, 1564.
[34] Ogo, I., Umoh, A., & Ojo, S. (2011). The dog meat trade in Nigeria: A public health concern. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 16(8), 985–992.
[35] Okoh, A., Adegboye, O., & Johnson, E. (2018). Evaluation of a rapid immunochromatographic test for rabies diagnosis in Nigeria. Journal of Tropical Medicine, 2018, 6451025.
[36] Prosniak, M., Finke, S., Conzelmann, K. K., Hooper, D. C., & Koprowski, H. (2003). Rabies virus infection disrupts neuronal function and leads to neuronal apoptosis. Journal of Neurovirology, 9(4), 455–465.
[37] Rupprecht, C. E., Hanlon, C. A., & Hemachudha, T. (2018). Rabies: A neglected zoonotic disease. The Lancet, 392(10151), 939–952.
[38] Tepsumethanon, V., Lumlertdaecha, K., Mitmoonpitak, C., & Ratanasirichaikul, P. (2005). Rabies in Thailand: Epidemiology and control. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand, 88(Suppl 2), S16–S21.
[39] Tiwari, S., Shrivastava, N., & Verma, A. (2021). Community-based rabies control in India. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, 654877.
[40] WHO Rabies Modelling Consortium. (2020). The cost-effectiveness of rabies control in Africa and Asia. The Lancet Global Health, 8(1), e63–e70.
[41] World Health Organization [WHO]. (1997). WHO recommendations on rabies post exposure treatment and the correct technique of intradermal immunization against rabies (WHO/EMC/ZOO.96.6).
[42] World Health Organization [WHO]. (2005). Expert consultation on rabies: First report (WHO Technical Report Series 931).
[43] World Health Organization [WHO]. (2016). Rabies. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/rabies/about/home_diagnosis/en/
[44] World Health Organization [WHO]. (2021). Rabies. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/rabies
[45] World Health Organization [WHO]. (2023). Rabies. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/rabies
[46] World Organisation for Animal Health [OIE]. (2004a). OIE manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals: Part 1, section 1.1, chapter 1.1.1.
[47] World Organisation for Animal Health [OIE]. (2004b). Rabies. In OIE manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals: Part 2.
[48] World Organisation for Animal Health [OIE]. (2012). OIE manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals.
[49] Xu, Y., Tang, Y., Sun, J., Li, X., Wang, J., Yang, Y., & Wei, S. (2021). Nanopore metagenomic sequencing of influenza virus directly from respiratory samples: Diagnosis, drug resistance and nosocomial transmission, United Kingdom, 2018/19 influenza season. Euro Surveillance, 26(27), 2000004.
[50] Yang, D. Y., Eng, B., Waye, J. S., Dudar, J. C., & Saunders, S. R. (1998). Improved DNA extraction from ancient bones using silica‐based spin columns. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 105(4), 539–543.
[51] Zanoni, R., Hornlimann, B., & Wandler, A. I. (1990). Rabies tissue culture infection test as an alternative for the mouse inoculation test. Altex, 7, 15–25.
How to cite this paper
@article{1713671,
author = {Joseph Otafu Adaji, Adamu Ishaku Akyala, Joseph Anejo-Okopi; David Ishaleku, Danjuma Timloh Haruna; Victor Ochapa Aboh, Swem Mary-Collins Maikiriuwa; Chukwu-Eze Uchechukwu Scholastica},
title = {Comparative Assessment of the Rapid Immune Chromatographic Test (RICT) and Direct Fluorescent Antibody Test (DFAT) for Rapid and Accurate Laboratory Diagnosis of Rabies},
journal = {Iconic Research And Engineering Journals},
year = {2026},
volume = {9},
number = {7},
pages = {2662-2670},
issn = {2456-8880},
url = {https://www.irejournals.com/formatedpaper/1713671.pdf},
abstract = {Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease that continues to present a public health challenge globally, in particular the endemic regions such as sub-Saharan Africa. In Nigeria, rabies is mainly acquired through dog-mediated exposures, and indeed the true burden is often underestimated due to poor surveillance and diagnostic tools. Rapid and accurate laboratory diagnosis is vital to effective post exposure prophylaxis (PEP) and outbreak control. The Direct Fluorescent Antibody Test (DFAT), is considered to be the gold standard and is reliable for detecting rabies, but it requires proper trained personnel and specialized equipment which is needed in many resource-limited areas. This investigation examined how good a Rapid Rabies Test (RRT), a type of Rapid Immune Chromatographic Test (RICT), is by comparing it to the DFAT on a cohort of 234 canine brain tissues from Nigeria’s North Central states (Benue, Nasarawa, and Plateau). The DFAT found a prevalence of Rabies virus (RABV) antigens of 8.12% in the cohort examined. The RRT diagnostic test was found to have a sensitivity of 78.9% (95% CI: 56.7–92.2%), and specificity of 98.1% (95% CI: 95.7–99.4%). The high specificity of the RRT diagnostic test supports its use as a quick and on-site screening mechanism for rabies and as an early detection test, while the moderate sensitivity indicates that some cases may be missed, resulting in a false negative test result. This report concludes that RRT is a great preliminary screening tool for rabies in the field, and is certainly an acceptable test for rabies screening, it should not be used as a stand-alone diagnostic test and not replace the DFAT that would be used to ultimately assess canine rabies, especially if it is to be used as part of public health interventions, as the public health consequences of missing rabies cases could be quite acute.},
keywords = {Rabies, Diagnosis, Rapid Rabies Test, Direct Fluorescent Antibody Test, Sensitivity, Specificity, One Health},
month = {January},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.64388/IREV9I7-1713671}
}